THEORIES OF DECUNE Flood and Earthquake (R.L Raikes)
Evidence of Flood (a) Occupation levels divided by silt
deposits. . .
(b) Houses and Streets covered by silt deposits up to 30
ft above ground level.
(c) Houses built on silt covered debris.
Evidence of Earthquake (a) Indus area is a disturbed
earthquake zone
(b) Earthquake raised the level of flood plains blocking
passage of river water to sea, forcing water into cities.
(c) Earthquake caused shift of land away from sea coast affecting commercial cities.
. Criticism (a) Decline of settlements outside Indus Valley
will not be explained by this theory. '
(b) A river cannot be dammed by tectonic effects.
Mohenjo-daro destroyed by Shifting of River Indus (Lambrick)
Evidence. Silt is there in Harappa because of wind action
which brought sand and silt. Sand silt not due to floods.
Criticism This explains only the desertion of Mohenjodaro
but not its decline.
Increased aridity led to decline (D.P. Agarwal and Sood)
Evidence (a) Middle of second millennium Be, a period of
increased arid conditions.
(b) In such a situation a semi-arid region (like Harappa)
would be affected most-decline of agriculture would result.
(c) Tectonic movement would affect river system like
Ghopar which would dry up.
Criticism (a) Not fully worked out.
(b) Drying up of River Ghaggar not dated yet.
Barbarian or Aryan invasions destroyed Harappa (Sir Mortimer Wheeler)
Evidence (a) Human skeletons have been found lying on
the streets.
(b) Rig Veda refers to fortresses of 'dasas' which god
Purandara destroys.
(c) The geographical area of Rig Vedic Aryans includes
Punjab Ghaggar region.
(d) Vedas mention a. place called Hariyapiya (name similar
to Harappa) on River Ravi where Aryans fought a battle.
Criticism Decline of Harappa around 1800 Be whereas Aryans not earlier than 1500 Be. So Harappans and Aryans clash seems difficult to accept.
Wednesday, November 25, 2009
RELIGION
RELIGION
The Mother Goddess was the popular divinity, but the upper classes preferred a god, nude with two horns, much similar to Pasupati Siva. Represented on " is a figure with three horned heads in a yogic posturE is surrounded by an elephant, a tiger and a rhinoceros, below his throne is a buffalo. Near his feet are two The bull was held sacred. Certain trees like pipal' ascribed divinity. Phallic worship was an important elel of religion. Many cone-shaped objects have been fo which seem to be formalised representations of the pha Certain large ring-shaped stones have also been fe which represent yonis. However, no temple has been f01 though idolatry was practised.
The Mother Goddess was the popular divinity, but the upper classes preferred a god, nude with two horns, much similar to Pasupati Siva. Represented on " is a figure with three horned heads in a yogic posturE is surrounded by an elephant, a tiger and a rhinoceros, below his throne is a buffalo. Near his feet are two The bull was held sacred. Certain trees like pipal' ascribed divinity. Phallic worship was an important elel of religion. Many cone-shaped objects have been fo which seem to be formalised representations of the pha Certain large ring-shaped stones have also been fe which represent yonis. However, no temple has been f01 though idolatry was practised.
SEALS and SCRIPT
SEALS
Every merchant or mercantile family probably had a seal bearing an emblem, often of a religious character, and a name or brief inscription. The standard Harappa seal was a square or oblong plaque made of steatite stone. The Mesopotamians employed cylinder seals; one or tWo such seals have been found in Mohenjo-daro. The primary purpose of the seal was probably to mark the ownership of property, but they may have also served as amulets.
SCRIPT
The Indus script had some 270 characters, which were pictographic in origin, but which had an ideographic or
syllabic character. The script has not been deciphered so far,
. but overlaps of letters on some of the potsherds from Kalibangan show that writing was 'boustrophedon' or from right to left and from left to right in alternate lines. We are not certain about the writing media, but a small pot found at Chanhu-daro is regarded as an inkwell.
Every merchant or mercantile family probably had a seal bearing an emblem, often of a religious character, and a name or brief inscription. The standard Harappa seal was a square or oblong plaque made of steatite stone. The Mesopotamians employed cylinder seals; one or tWo such seals have been found in Mohenjo-daro. The primary purpose of the seal was probably to mark the ownership of property, but they may have also served as amulets.
SCRIPT
The Indus script had some 270 characters, which were pictographic in origin, but which had an ideographic or
syllabic character. The script has not been deciphered so far,
. but overlaps of letters on some of the potsherds from Kalibangan show that writing was 'boustrophedon' or from right to left and from left to right in alternate lines. We are not certain about the writing media, but a small pot found at Chanhu-daro is regarded as an inkwell.
POINTS TO REMEMBER
POINTS TO REMEMBER
. Terracotta figures and seals are most useful sources for understanding the religious and social life .of the Harappan people.
. After Independence, the state of Gujarat has accounted
for the largest number of Harappan sites.
. The mature Harappan civilisation lasted for about five
centuries.
. Rojadi, Desalpur and Surkotada are the three Harappan sites which have yielded three stages. of Harappan civilisation-pre-Harappan, Harappan and postHarappan.
. Bronze was the most widely used metal in Harappan
civilisation.
. Needles, razors, sickles, plough, forks, and spoons were
among the important tools and implements used by
Harappan people.
. Stone, copper and bronze were used in making Harappan
weapons.
. Worship of Siva linga, Siva as Pasupati anC: Shakti by
the modern Hindu are the Harappan legacies.
. Harappan seals were used for both religious and com
mercial purposes.
. Humpless bull or unicorn was the most commonly
engraved animal on Harappan seals.
. Modern Dravidian script is supposed to be the closest
to the Harappan script.
. Metals and precious stones were the most important
item of import for the Harappans.
. The Harappan trade, operated on regional as well as
inter-regional level, was multifaceted. It was based on
guild system coupled with nomadic trade.
. On the basis of radio-carbon dating, the time span of
the Harappan civilisation has be~n fixed between 2300
Be and 1750 Be.
. Kot-Diji, Kalibangan and Harappa have yielded evi
dence of a pre-Harappan settlement.
. Lothal, Balakot, Suktagendor and Allahdin (Pakistan)
were the major Harappan cities that acted as .ports.
. Harappan agricultural economy was mainly based on
wheat and associated winter crops.
. Majority of the Indus terracotta figurines were hand
modelled. .
. Harappan seals were manufactured by the process of
cutting.
. 'English Bond' is the Harappan legacy of laying bricks
in alternate headers and stretchers.
. The whole area of the Harappan culture represents a .
triangle.
. Soft limestone and steatite were the most common
materials used for the Harappan stone sculpture.
. Of all the Harappan sites, Mohenjo-c\aro had the most
impressive drainage system.
.. The cemetries of the Harappan cities were generally
located around the perimetre of the settlements.
. The most beautiful brick work of the Harappans is
found in the Great Bath.
. Harappans acquired turquoise, a semi-precious stone,
from Persia.
. The Brahvis tribe of present-day Pakistan has been
identified as the descendants of the Harappan people.
. Indus Civilisation belongs to the ~roto-Historical period.
. Inhumation or complete burial was the most common
method of the disposal of the dead.
. Anthropological studies have established that the Harappan population consisted of four races: Alpine, Mediterranean, Mongoloid and Proto-Austroloid. Of them, Mediterraneans had the largest share.
. The statement "The enemy of the Harappans was nature. Indra and the barbarian hordes are exonerated" was made by G.F. Dales.
. The beginning of the Harappan script can be traced back. to the potter's marks found at Mundigak and Damb Sadat.
. Cotton and wool clothes were used by the Harappan
people.
. Terracotta figures and seals are most useful sources for understanding the religious and social life .of the Harappan people.
. After Independence, the state of Gujarat has accounted
for the largest number of Harappan sites.
. The mature Harappan civilisation lasted for about five
centuries.
. Rojadi, Desalpur and Surkotada are the three Harappan sites which have yielded three stages. of Harappan civilisation-pre-Harappan, Harappan and postHarappan.
. Bronze was the most widely used metal in Harappan
civilisation.
. Needles, razors, sickles, plough, forks, and spoons were
among the important tools and implements used by
Harappan people.
. Stone, copper and bronze were used in making Harappan
weapons.
. Worship of Siva linga, Siva as Pasupati anC: Shakti by
the modern Hindu are the Harappan legacies.
. Harappan seals were used for both religious and com
mercial purposes.
. Humpless bull or unicorn was the most commonly
engraved animal on Harappan seals.
. Modern Dravidian script is supposed to be the closest
to the Harappan script.
. Metals and precious stones were the most important
item of import for the Harappans.
. The Harappan trade, operated on regional as well as
inter-regional level, was multifaceted. It was based on
guild system coupled with nomadic trade.
. On the basis of radio-carbon dating, the time span of
the Harappan civilisation has be~n fixed between 2300
Be and 1750 Be.
. Kot-Diji, Kalibangan and Harappa have yielded evi
dence of a pre-Harappan settlement.
. Lothal, Balakot, Suktagendor and Allahdin (Pakistan)
were the major Harappan cities that acted as .ports.
. Harappan agricultural economy was mainly based on
wheat and associated winter crops.
. Majority of the Indus terracotta figurines were hand
modelled. .
. Harappan seals were manufactured by the process of
cutting.
. 'English Bond' is the Harappan legacy of laying bricks
in alternate headers and stretchers.
. The whole area of the Harappan culture represents a .
triangle.
. Soft limestone and steatite were the most common
materials used for the Harappan stone sculpture.
. Of all the Harappan sites, Mohenjo-c\aro had the most
impressive drainage system.
.. The cemetries of the Harappan cities were generally
located around the perimetre of the settlements.
. The most beautiful brick work of the Harappans is
found in the Great Bath.
. Harappans acquired turquoise, a semi-precious stone,
from Persia.
. The Brahvis tribe of present-day Pakistan has been
identified as the descendants of the Harappan people.
. Indus Civilisation belongs to the ~roto-Historical period.
. Inhumation or complete burial was the most common
method of the disposal of the dead.
. Anthropological studies have established that the Harappan population consisted of four races: Alpine, Mediterranean, Mongoloid and Proto-Austroloid. Of them, Mediterraneans had the largest share.
. The statement "The enemy of the Harappans was nature. Indra and the barbarian hordes are exonerated" was made by G.F. Dales.
. The beginning of the Harappan script can be traced back. to the potter's marks found at Mundigak and Damb Sadat.
. Cotton and wool clothes were used by the Harappan
people.
WHAT SURVIVES FROM HARAPPA
WHAT SURVIVES FROM HARAPPA
Although the Harappan civilisation declined in the second millennium Be, archaeological finds show a stylistic continuity of the Harappan phase. The agricultural communities that emerged in the following periods, especially in Gujarat and Rajasthan, clearly bear links with the Harappan tradition in terms of pottery, disposition of water supply, etc. The shapes of Harappan pottery and terracotta are matched by those of the objects of some later cultures in the north-west and Punjab.
The cult of Pasupati or Siva and of the mother goddess and phallic worship seem to have come down to use from the Harappan tradition. Similarly, the cult of sacred places, rivers or trees and sacred animals show a distinct continuity. Many aspects of domestic life like the house plans, disposition of water supply and attention to bathing have survived till today. The traditional weight and currency system of India, based on a ratio of 16 as the unit, was already present in the Harappan Civilisation. The techniques of making a potter's wheel is similar to those used by the Harappans.
Although the Harappan civilisation declined in the second millennium Be, archaeological finds show a stylistic continuity of the Harappan phase. The agricultural communities that emerged in the following periods, especially in Gujarat and Rajasthan, clearly bear links with the Harappan tradition in terms of pottery, disposition of water supply, etc. The shapes of Harappan pottery and terracotta are matched by those of the objects of some later cultures in the north-west and Punjab.
The cult of Pasupati or Siva and of the mother goddess and phallic worship seem to have come down to use from the Harappan tradition. Similarly, the cult of sacred places, rivers or trees and sacred animals show a distinct continuity. Many aspects of domestic life like the house plans, disposition of water supply and attention to bathing have survived till today. The traditional weight and currency system of India, based on a ratio of 16 as the unit, was already present in the Harappan Civilisation. The techniques of making a potter's wheel is similar to those used by the Harappans.
POLITICAL ORGANISATION
POLITICAL ORGANISATION
There is no clear idea about the political organisation o~ Indus Valley people. Unlike the Mesopotamians ~dl Egyptians they have not left behind any inscription desq ing their system of administration. Perhaps the Indus va1 people were more concerned with commerce and they w ruled by a class of merchants. But it can be safely sta that there was an organisation like a municipal corporat to look after the civic amenities of the people.
DECLINE
The Harappan culture flourished until about 1800 BC Afterwards, its urban phase marked by systematic to\i planning, extensive brick-work, art of writing, stand, weights and measures, distinction between the citadel a the lower. town, use of bronze tools, and red wan! pottE painted with black designs practically disappeared.
stylistic homogeneity disappeared, and the post-urban Harappan stage was marked by sharp stylistic diverss Some traits of the post-urban Harappan culture are fow in Pakistan, and in central and western India, in Punjab, Rajasthan, Haryana, Jammu and Kashmir, Delhi and w ern U.P. They broadly cover the period from 1800 BC to 1
BC. The post-urban phase of the Harappan culture is known as the sub-Indus culture and is more popularly known as the late Harappan culture.
The late Harappan cultures are primarily Chalcolithic in which tools of stone and copper are used. The Chalcolithic people in the later Harappan phase lived in villages subsisting on agriculture, stock-raising, hunting and fishing. Some places such as Prabhas Patan (Somnath) and Rangpur, both in Gujarat, are the direct descendants of the Harappan culture.
have been found in conjunction with some late Harappan pottery dated around 1200 Be. But we have no archaeological evidence of any mass-scale confrontation between the mature Harappans and the Aryans.
There is not enough evidence to say with certainty that the destroyers of the Indus cities were members of the group of related tribes whose priests composed the Rigveda, but probably the fall of this great civilisation was partly due to the widespread migratory movement of charioteering peoples which alt~red the face of the whole civilised world in the second millenium Be.
Scholars like Fairservis tried to explain the decay of the Harappan civilisation in terms of the problems of ecology. He computed the population of the Harappan cities and worked out the food requirements of the towns folk. He also computed that the villages in these areas consume about 80 per cent of their produce leaving about 20 per cent for the market. If similar patterns of agriculture existed in the past, a city like Mohenjo-daro, with a population of about 35,000, would require very large numbers of villages producing food. Fairservis calculated that the delicate ecological balance of these semi-arid areas was being disturbed because the human and cattle population in these areas was fast depleting the scanty forests, food and fuel resources. The combined needs of the Harappans, peasants and pastoralists exceeded the limited production capacities of these areas. Thus, a growing population of men and animals confronted by scanty resources wore out the landscape.
With the forests and grass cover gradually disappearing, there were more floods and droughts. This depletion of the subsistence base caused strain on the entire economy. There seems to have been a gradual movement away to areas which offered better subsistence possibilities. That is why the Harappan communities moved towards Gujaratand the eastern areas, away from the Indus.
The Fairservis theory of environmental disaster appears to be the most plausible in explaining the decline. The gradual deterioration in the town planning and the living standards was a reflection of the depleting subsistence base of the Harappans. This process of decline was completed by the raids and attacks of the surrounding communities.
Scholars have assigned several possible reasons for the decline of the civilisation. The floods in the Indus river might have caused its destruction. It is also supposed that the Indus might have changed its course, thus rendering the valley infertile. The river valley might have lost its charm and the inhabitants might bave left it for good. Or perhaps, due to deficient rainfall and deforestation there might have appeared desert conditions in the valley. It is even suggested that an earthquake might have caused its destruction, as in Quetta.
Some exotic tools and pottery indicate the slow percolation of new peoples in the Indus Valley during the later phases of the Harappan culture. A few signs of insecurity and violence appear in the last phase of Mohenjo-daro. Hoards of jewellery were buried at places, and skulls huddled together at one place. New types of axes, daggers, knives with mid-ribs and flat tangs appear in the upper levels of Mohenjo-daro. They seem to betray some foreign intrusion. At several sites in Punjab and Haryana, Painted Grey Ware (generally associated with the Vedic people)
There is no clear idea about the political organisation o~ Indus Valley people. Unlike the Mesopotamians ~dl Egyptians they have not left behind any inscription desq ing their system of administration. Perhaps the Indus va1 people were more concerned with commerce and they w ruled by a class of merchants. But it can be safely sta that there was an organisation like a municipal corporat to look after the civic amenities of the people.
DECLINE
The Harappan culture flourished until about 1800 BC Afterwards, its urban phase marked by systematic to\i planning, extensive brick-work, art of writing, stand, weights and measures, distinction between the citadel a the lower. town, use of bronze tools, and red wan! pottE painted with black designs practically disappeared.
stylistic homogeneity disappeared, and the post-urban Harappan stage was marked by sharp stylistic diverss Some traits of the post-urban Harappan culture are fow in Pakistan, and in central and western India, in Punjab, Rajasthan, Haryana, Jammu and Kashmir, Delhi and w ern U.P. They broadly cover the period from 1800 BC to 1
BC. The post-urban phase of the Harappan culture is known as the sub-Indus culture and is more popularly known as the late Harappan culture.
The late Harappan cultures are primarily Chalcolithic in which tools of stone and copper are used. The Chalcolithic people in the later Harappan phase lived in villages subsisting on agriculture, stock-raising, hunting and fishing. Some places such as Prabhas Patan (Somnath) and Rangpur, both in Gujarat, are the direct descendants of the Harappan culture.
have been found in conjunction with some late Harappan pottery dated around 1200 Be. But we have no archaeological evidence of any mass-scale confrontation between the mature Harappans and the Aryans.
There is not enough evidence to say with certainty that the destroyers of the Indus cities were members of the group of related tribes whose priests composed the Rigveda, but probably the fall of this great civilisation was partly due to the widespread migratory movement of charioteering peoples which alt~red the face of the whole civilised world in the second millenium Be.
Scholars like Fairservis tried to explain the decay of the Harappan civilisation in terms of the problems of ecology. He computed the population of the Harappan cities and worked out the food requirements of the towns folk. He also computed that the villages in these areas consume about 80 per cent of their produce leaving about 20 per cent for the market. If similar patterns of agriculture existed in the past, a city like Mohenjo-daro, with a population of about 35,000, would require very large numbers of villages producing food. Fairservis calculated that the delicate ecological balance of these semi-arid areas was being disturbed because the human and cattle population in these areas was fast depleting the scanty forests, food and fuel resources. The combined needs of the Harappans, peasants and pastoralists exceeded the limited production capacities of these areas. Thus, a growing population of men and animals confronted by scanty resources wore out the landscape.
With the forests and grass cover gradually disappearing, there were more floods and droughts. This depletion of the subsistence base caused strain on the entire economy. There seems to have been a gradual movement away to areas which offered better subsistence possibilities. That is why the Harappan communities moved towards Gujaratand the eastern areas, away from the Indus.
The Fairservis theory of environmental disaster appears to be the most plausible in explaining the decline. The gradual deterioration in the town planning and the living standards was a reflection of the depleting subsistence base of the Harappans. This process of decline was completed by the raids and attacks of the surrounding communities.
Scholars have assigned several possible reasons for the decline of the civilisation. The floods in the Indus river might have caused its destruction. It is also supposed that the Indus might have changed its course, thus rendering the valley infertile. The river valley might have lost its charm and the inhabitants might bave left it for good. Or perhaps, due to deficient rainfall and deforestation there might have appeared desert conditions in the valley. It is even suggested that an earthquake might have caused its destruction, as in Quetta.
Some exotic tools and pottery indicate the slow percolation of new peoples in the Indus Valley during the later phases of the Harappan culture. A few signs of insecurity and violence appear in the last phase of Mohenjo-daro. Hoards of jewellery were buried at places, and skulls huddled together at one place. New types of axes, daggers, knives with mid-ribs and flat tangs appear in the upper levels of Mohenjo-daro. They seem to betray some foreign intrusion. At several sites in Punjab and Haryana, Painted Grey Ware (generally associated with the Vedic people)
Technology and other Facts
TECHNOLOGY
In many respects the Harappans were technologically backward in comparison with the Mesopotamians. The Sumerians very early invented knives and spear-heads with ribs in the middle for extra strength, and axeheads with holes for the shafts; but the blades of Harappa were flat and easily bent while the axehead had to be lashed to their handles. In one respect, however, they were technologically advanced compared to their contemporaries-they had devised a saw with undulating teeth, which allowed the dust to escape freely from the cut and much simplified the carpenter's task.
SOCIETY
The general view is that Indus Valley Civilisation was not the creation of a homogeneous people; it was a composite product of different races who lived and worked together in a particular environment. Mohenjo-daro had easy land and water communications. It was the meeting ground of people from different parts of Asia. However, in recent times, historians are veering round to the view that the Harappan culture is native to the soil, that the populations at these sites belonged each to a single biological group and probably descended from earlier populations in those regions.
From the skeletal remains so far examined it appears that some oithe Harappans w~re people of the longheaded, narrow-nosed, slender Mediterranean type. A second element was the Proto-Australoid, with flat nose and thick lips. A single skull of the Mongolian type, has been found, and one of the short-headed Alpin~ type. Father H. Heras has claimed that the Harappan lcu1guage was a very primitive form of Tamil.
DRESS AND ORNAMENTS The men wore robes which left one shoulder bare, and the garments of the upper classes were often richly patterned. Beards were worn, and men and women alike had long hair. The coiffures of the women were often elaborate, and pigtails were also popular. Women loved jewellery and wore heavy bangles in profusion, large necklaces, ear-rings, bracelets, finger-rings, girdles,
nose-studs and anklets.
Although no definite proof is available with rega~ the disposal of the dead, a broad view is that probably Ii were three methods of disposing the dead-complete bu
burial after exposure of the body to birds and beasts, cremation followed by burial of the ashes. The disc~ of cinerary urns and jars, goblets or vessels with as bones, and charcoal may, however, suggest that during flourishing period of the Indus Valley culture the t1 method was generally in vogue. The people prob, believed in ghosts and evil spirits, as amulets were WI
In many respects the Harappans were technologically backward in comparison with the Mesopotamians. The Sumerians very early invented knives and spear-heads with ribs in the middle for extra strength, and axeheads with holes for the shafts; but the blades of Harappa were flat and easily bent while the axehead had to be lashed to their handles. In one respect, however, they were technologically advanced compared to their contemporaries-they had devised a saw with undulating teeth, which allowed the dust to escape freely from the cut and much simplified the carpenter's task.
SOCIETY
The general view is that Indus Valley Civilisation was not the creation of a homogeneous people; it was a composite product of different races who lived and worked together in a particular environment. Mohenjo-daro had easy land and water communications. It was the meeting ground of people from different parts of Asia. However, in recent times, historians are veering round to the view that the Harappan culture is native to the soil, that the populations at these sites belonged each to a single biological group and probably descended from earlier populations in those regions.
From the skeletal remains so far examined it appears that some oithe Harappans w~re people of the longheaded, narrow-nosed, slender Mediterranean type. A second element was the Proto-Australoid, with flat nose and thick lips. A single skull of the Mongolian type, has been found, and one of the short-headed Alpin~ type. Father H. Heras has claimed that the Harappan lcu1guage was a very primitive form of Tamil.
DRESS AND ORNAMENTS The men wore robes which left one shoulder bare, and the garments of the upper classes were often richly patterned. Beards were worn, and men and women alike had long hair. The coiffures of the women were often elaborate, and pigtails were also popular. Women loved jewellery and wore heavy bangles in profusion, large necklaces, ear-rings, bracelets, finger-rings, girdles,
nose-studs and anklets.
Although no definite proof is available with rega~ the disposal of the dead, a broad view is that probably Ii were three methods of disposing the dead-complete bu
burial after exposure of the body to birds and beasts, cremation followed by burial of the ashes. The disc~ of cinerary urns and jars, goblets or vessels with as bones, and charcoal may, however, suggest that during flourishing period of the Indus Valley culture the t1 method was generally in vogue. The people prob, believed in ghosts and evil spirits, as amulets were WI
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